On the Education of Women in the Ancient World

προσ ανδρειαν αιτια αν ειη. ει μεν ουν τας αυτας ειναι πεφυκεν, αρετας ανδρος και γυνακος (If therefore the same virtue is born in men and women) αναγκη πασα και τροφην και παιδειαν την αυτην προσηκειν αμφοιν (in all things the same nurture and education necessarily belongs to both – Musonius Rufus, Lecture 4).

τα δε τοιαυτα μαθεματα πρωτον αφιστησι των ατοπων τας γυναικας (Such studies first divert women from absurdities) αισχυνθησεται γαρ ορχεισθαι γυνη γεωμετρειν μανθανουσα (for a woman studying geometry will be ashamed to dance) και φαρμακων επωιδας ου προσδεξεχεται τοις Πλατωνος επαιδομενη λογοις και τοις Ξενοφωντος (and she will not accept the spells of potion-makers when she is ensorcelled by the words of Plato or Xenophon). […] αν γαρ λογων χρηστων σπερματα μη δεχωνται μηδε κοινωνωσι παιδειας τοις ανδρασιν (For if they do not receive the seeds of worthy ideas and share with their husbands in education) αυται καθ’αυτας ατοπα πολλα και φαυλα βουλευματα και παθη κυουσι (they conceive many absurdities and shallow decisions and feelings by themselves – Plutarch, Moralia 145 C, D-E)

δεῖ παιδείας τε καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅτι μάλιστα (It is very necessary in education and in other things) κοινωνεῖν τὸ θῆλυ γένος ἡμῖν τῷ τῶν ἀρρένων γένει (for female kind to share with male kind – Plato, Laws 7.805c-d)

εἰ ἄρα ταῖς γυναιξὶν ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ χρησόμεθα καὶ τοῖς ἀνδράσι (If then we use women for the same things as men), ταὐτὰ καὶ διδακτέον αὐτάς (one must teach them the same things – Plato, The Republic 451e-452a) ὁμοίως διεσπαρμέναι αἱ φύσεις ἐν ἀμφοῖν τοῖν ζῴοιν (Similarly have natures been scattered amongst both beings), καὶ πάντων μὲν μετέχει γυνὴ ἐπιτηδευμάτων κατὰ φύσιν, πάντων δὲ ἀνήρ (and woman shares in all pursuits by nature and men in all) Plato, Republic 5.455d)

 

Christianity and Slavery in Antiquity

In the letter to Philemon, Paul writes, τάχα γὰρ διὰ τοῦτο ἐχωρίσθη (perhaps for this he was separated) πρὸς ὥραν (for a time) ἵνα αἰώνιον αὐτὸν ἀπέχῃς (that you might receive him forever), οὐκέτι ὡς δοῦλον ἀλλὰ ὑπὲρ δοῦλον (no longer as a slave but more than a slave), ἀδελφὸν ἀγαπητόν (a beloved brother), μάλιστα ἐμοί, πόσῳ δὲ μᾶλλον σοὶ (much to me and how much more to you) καὶ ἐν σαρκὶ καὶ ἐν κυρίῳ (both in the flesh and in the lord – 15, 16).  Paul sends the slave back to his master, whose home hosts a church (v.2), suggesting to the master that this may be for a higher purpose, but not suggesting any cessation of the practice of slavery.

Gregory of Nyssa’s 4th Homily on Ecclesiastes may include the earliest abolitionist text, asking a slave-buyer,  Τι ευρες εν τοις ουσι της φυσεως ταυτης ανταξιον; (What did you find in existence as valuable as this [human] nature?) […] Ποσοις οβολοις την εικονα του θεου αντεσταθμησας; (How many obols counterbalanced the image of G-d?) […] Τον καθ’ομοιοτητα του θεου οντα (being in the likeness of G-d) και πασης αρχοντα της γης (and ruling all the Earth) και παντων των επι της γης την εξουσιαν παρα του θεου κληρωσαμενον (and was granted power by G-d over all the things upon the Earth) τις ‘ο αμεμπωλων, ειπε (who [is] the seller, tell [me]) τις ‘ο ονουμενος; (who [is] the purchaser?) […] Ουκ αν ουν ‘ο θεος την φυσιν καταδουλωσειεν (Therefore that G-d would not enslave [human] nature) ‘ος γε και αυθαιρετως ‘ημας τηι ‘αμαρτιαι δουλωθεντας εις ελευθεριαν ανεκαλεσατο (who, when we had been enslaved to sin, willingly called us to freedom).  Ει δε ‘ο θεος ου δουλοι ελευθερον (If G-d does not enslave the free) τις ‘ο ‘υπερτιθεις του θεου την αυτου δυναστειαν; (who [is] the one setting himself above the power of G-d?)

Inclusivity and Church Migration

Having examined factors involved in the migration of members between the US Episcopal Church and other churches, and TEC’s “slightly higher retention than the national average”, Benjamin Knoll concludes that “the Episcopal Church’s more inclusive and thoughtful approach to spirituality as well as its prominent advocacy of marriage equality/LGBTQ rights are the most influential factors right now that are driving some people away from the Episcopal Church while simultaneously drawing newcomers in.”

Online exorcism

It’s not everyday that you see someone attempting an exorcism online.

 

I was going to comment on the interesting ecclesiological aspects of an Anglican Communion News Service post on facebook: the Presiding Bishop of an Anglican province is imposing a restriction on the disciplinary powers of a bishop of a diocese in that province; given the way that conservative American Anglicans have reacted previously to things which they dislike, this could well lead to a lawsuit about control of the church, a procedure which almost never benefits the church.

 

However, I’m now more interested by something in the comments: in response to one Olugbenga Ademilokun, a Christopher Cooper made a fair, if cheeky, comment about the church’s colourful history on marriage rites, whereupon this Andrew Scollick replies with St Anthony’s Brief – which is an exorcism formula.

Greek Βαρβαροι

In reference to a discussion about the Ancient Greeks and xenophobia, racism, etc.:

While Xenophon’s “Anabasis” is highly critical of the Persians’ martial abilities, his view of their people and culture is rather more positive (q.v. the Persian court 1.9, beautiful women 3.2, Persian dance 6.1).

Similarly, Herodotus comments on the strangeness of some Egyptian customs (gender roles 2.35) but also of the cultural debt which the Greeks owed to them (2.50, 64, 82).

Plutarch’s representations are likewise mixed. His “Virtues of Women” gives Persian women as exemplars of morality, inspiring their men to courage (5); his life of Themistocles has the Greek leader adopting Persian customs and language (27 ff); his description of Artaxerxes and his court is a picture of tyranny and corruption. Note, however, that Plutarch’s generally-negative view of βαρβαροι (barbarians, non-Greeks) includes Gauls as well as Persians (q.v. Anastasios G. Nikolaidis’ “Ἑλληνικός – βαρβαρικός: Plutarch on Greek and Barbarian Characteristics”).

Aeschylus’ “The Persians” is not a caricature of a despised Other, but instead a thoughtful consideration of the humanity of the enemy, matched with a proclamation that it is the will of the gods for the Greeks to be militarily superior.

It is also worth pointing out, in relation to Plutarch’s negative view of all barbarians, west or east, that the C3rd(?) Physgnomica (once attributed to Aristotle), identifies both pale skin and black skin as emblematic of cowardice. On the other hand, Strabo comments positively on the Nabataeans (XVI.iv.26); both the Iliad (1.423) and Herodotos (3.20) praise the Ethiopians.

To sum all of that up, the Ancient Greeks did in general have a fairly condescending attitude towards other groups, especially regarding others’ fighting ability. Confusing that pro-Greek view with a pro-European, pro-white one would be a huge mistake, however, and is just another part of the ongoing Western European attempt to appropriate Greek culture.

I also had a look at the development of the term βαρβαροι (“barbarians”, allegedly because of the sound – to Greek ears – of non-Greek speech), and found something amusing.

While the term was routinely used by Greeks to refer to non-Greeks, not typically in a particularly pejorative sense but simply as an antonym to ‘Ελληνες (Hellēnes, “Greeks”), I found a place where the Greeks themselves are the ones described as βαρβαροι. In 2 Maccabees in the Septuagint, i.e. in part of the story of the Jewish revolt against their Seleucid Greek rulers, there is a reference to the heroic Jews who drove out τα βαρβαρα πληθη, “the horde of barbarian things”. The neuter plurals could not be used just for (adult) people, and so must, I presume, refer not only to the Greeks themselves but also to the things which they did (Antiochus Epiphanēs’ hellenising agenda having been what led to the revolt) but the Greeks are nonetheless included in what was driven out: they were Greek βαρβαροι.

Also regarding that term, Homer uses βαρβαροφωνης (“of barbaric speech”) to describe the Carians (Il 2.867) but never uses βαρβαροι itself at all. During the Persian War, the latter term seems to acquire some pejorative connotations, but is (as noted previously) nonetheless used for people whom Greek writers praised in various other respects, and Strabo has an extended discussion of it in his “Geography” (14.2.28) wherein he explicitly rejects the notion that it is automatically negative, describing it instead as onomatopoeic by default.

Also, Philo of Alexandria uses “Greeks and Barbarians” (‘Ελληνες και Βαρβαροι) for “everyone” (On Abraham 45), as does the New Testament (Col 3:11, Rom 1:14), and also uses βαρβαροι for the people of Melitē who helped Paul and the narrator (Ac 28:2,4). Josephus, another Jew, includes his own people under βαρβαροι (The Wars of the Jews, preface 1,6). All of these writers, despite being non-Greek themselves, clearly do not view the term as pejorative.

Jumping back to Herodotus, he rather quaintly says, “The Egyptians call ‘barbarians’ [βαρβαροι] everyone who doesn’t speak the same language as they do.” (2.158), slyly paralleling Greek usage, again without any consideration of the term as negative.

Further, I’ve found two examples of Greeks describing Greeks as βαρβαροι: Stratonicus of Athens, on being asked whether the Boeotians or Thessalians were the greatest barbarians (βαρβαρωτεροι), answered, “The Eleans” (Deipnosophists 8.42); Prodicus of Ceos describes the Mytilenean dialect as a barbarian tongue (φωνη βαρβαρος) (Plato, Protagoras 341c).

On Κεφαλη

There’s a charge in modern, progressive Christian circles that Paul’s reference to a husband as “the head of” his wife (Eph 5:23) doesn’t confer authority on the husband because the word κεφαλη does not denote authority in Greek.

While this is generally true, it does raise the question of what language or dialect Paul was thinking.  His Greek is hardly polished, and Philo of Alexandria, another Greek-speaking Jew, parallels κεφαλη with κυριος (τοΰ τε κυριωτάτου τών μελών, κεφαλής – Special Laws 147, ‘the most lordly of the parts, the head’); similarly, Josephus parallels it with αρχω (ὧν ἄρχει μὲν βασίλειον τὰ Ἱεροσόλυμα προανίσχουσα τῆς περιοίκου πάσης ὥσπερ ἡ κεφαλὴ σώματος – Jewish Wars 3.54), both of which suggest that the Jewish-Greek idiom could use κεφαλη that way.  Since Rosh ha-knesset (“Head of the Synagogue”) was in use at least as early as the C2nd CE, Paul could have been thinking in those terms when he said of Jesus ὡς καὶ ὁ Χριστὸς κεφαλὴ τῆς ἐκκλησίας (“as also Christ [is] head of the Church”, Eph 5:23).

Now, I have seen a claim that Plutarch uses it, in Cicero 14.4 and in Galba 4.3.  The problem with that claim is that both contexts refer to a metaphorical body which lacks leadership and direction, not domination, which is somewhat different: it still does not express authority.  A Speaker in parliament has authority, but generally does not provide leadership; one member of a group of friends might lead, but generally has no authority; conflating the two is the result of modern Westerners’ inability to discriminate between auctoritas and potestas.

The Ordination of Women in Early Christianity

The records of ordained women in Early Christianity show a peculiar pattern: a significant concentration in the 4th to 6th centuries. There is a similar pattern for women synagogue leaders, with a concentration in the 3rd to 5th centuries. That the Christian pattern so neatly follows the Jewish one suggests a relationship.

The record of women writers in the Greco-Roman world provide a useful counterpoint in that they do not show any such pattern: apart from a peak in the fourth to third century BCE, the commencement of the Hellenistic age, and another in the first to second century CE, the commencement of the Imperial age, the rate is fairly consistent. That counterpoint suggests that the ordination is not related to the general status of women.

My current hypothesis is, therefore, that the spike in the ordinations of Christian women (and the figure for the seventh century drops back to 3%) was a response to the elevation of women synagogue leaders.

DATASET
Women Synagogue Leaders
location, possible centuries
Africa Naro 4 5 ?
Asia Caria 3 4 4 5
Ionia 3 4
Crete 4 5
Egypt -1
Palestine 4
Europe Thessaly ?
Italy – Apulia 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6
Italy – Brescia -1 1 2 3
-1 1 2 3
3 4
Italy – Rome 2 3
Thrace 4 5

Ordained Christian Women
area, text, name, source, date written, date set (lit only)
east lit Graptē Shepherd of Hermas 2
none Pliny to Trajan 10.96 2
Amproukla Chrysostom Letters 96, 101, 103 4
Anastasia Severus of Antioch, Letters 69, 70, 71, 72 6
Axia Theodoret of Cyrrhus (Letter Patmos 48, 44) 5
Basilina Cyril of Scythopolis, Life of John the Hesychast
218.21-219.7, 219.19-220.4 6 5
Casiana Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Sirm Letter 17 5
Celerina Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Sirm Letter 101 5
Dionysia Cyril of Scythopolis, Life of St Euthymius
8.20-9.9, 10.5-14, 10.22-11.2 5
Elisanthia, Martyria, Palladia Life of Olympias 7 5
Eugenia Severus of Antioch, Letters 110 6
Eusebia of Constantinople Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History 9.2 5
Eusebia or Xenē of Mylasa Caria, Vita Sanctae Eusebiae 5 1
Jannia Severus of Antioch, Letter 7.2 6
Justina Lives of Sts Cyprian and Justina 4 3
Lampadion Gregory of Nyssa, Life of Macrina 29 4
Magna of Ancyra Nilus of Ancyra, Letter; Palladius, Lausiac History 67 5
Manaris of Gaza Mark the Deacon, Life of Porphyry, Bishop of Gaza 102 4
Marthana Egeria, Pilgrimage to the Holy Places 23.3 5
Matrona of Cosila Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History 7.21 5 4
Nektaria Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History 4.24 5
Nicarete Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History 8.23 5
Olympias Life of Olympias 6; Palladius,
Dialogue on the Life of John Chrysostom
10.50-67, 16.179-90, 17.122-30;
Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History 8.9, 8.24 5
Pentadia John Chrysostom, Letters 94, 104, 185
Publia Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Ecclesiastical History 3.14 5 4
Romana The Life of St Pelagia 5 4
Sabiniana John Chrysostom, Letters 13 (6 to Olympias);
Palladius, Lausiac History 41
Severa of Jerusalem Evagrius Ponticus, Letters 7.2, 8.2, 19.2, 20 4
Susanna Acta Sanctorum 4
Theodula Life of St Euphrasia (or Eupraxia) 4
Theophila of Chersonesus Life of St Parthenius 4
Valeriana Severus of Antioch, Letter 7.1
daughters of Count Tarentius Basil of Caesarea, Letter 105 4
(unnamed) Callinicos, Life of Hypatius 8.13-17 5
(unnamed) Theodoret of Cyhrrus, Ecclesiastical History 3.14 4
(unnamed) Palladius, Lausiac History 70.3
(unnamed) Pseudo-Ignatius, To the Antiochenes 12 4 2
(unnamed) John Moschus, Pratum Spirituale 3 7
inscr Aeria Amisos 6
Agaliasis Melos 1 4
Agathē Macedonian Philippi 1 5
Agathokleia Macedonian Edessa 1 5 6
Agrippianē Patras, Greece 4 5 6
Alexandra of Pontus Apollonia, Pontus 1
Alexandria of Elis Elis 4
Anastasia of Palestine Wadi Kilt 4 5 6 7
Andromacha Klauseios, Achaia 6
Aretē Aphrodisias, Caria 1
Athanasia of Delphi Delphi 5
Athanasia of Korykos Korykos, Cilicia 1
Aurelia Faustina Phrygia 1 4
Basilikē Neoclaudiopolis, Pontus 1
Basilis Monastery of St George Choziba 6
Basilissa Lycaonia 1
Celerina of Novae Novae (Svistov) 6
Celsa Tyriaion, Phrygia 1
Charitina Korykos, Cilicia 1 6
Dipha Phrygia 1 4 5 6
Domna Bulduk 1
Eirenē Thessaly 4
Eistrategis Phrygia 1
Elaphia Phrygia 1 4
Elladis Jordan
Eneon Siloam, Israel
Epiphaneia Lydia 4
Epiphania Lydia 6
Eugenia Bithynia 1
Eugenia Nicopolis 6
Goulasis Lycaonia 1
Lampadia Smyrna
Matrona of Axylos Phrygia 1
Matrona of Stobi Macedonia 1 4 5
Mesalina Phrygia 1
Nikagora Athens
Nonna of Galatia
Nonna of Palestine
Nunē Phrygia 1 5 6
Paula Phrygia 1
Philogonis Galatia 1 6
Posidonia Macedonia 4 5
Pribis Phrygia 1
Severa Phrygia 1
Sophia Jerusalem 4
Tetradia of Volos Thessaly 1
Theodora Korykos, Cilicia 1
Theodosia Macedonia 1 5 6
Theophila Korykos, Cilicia
Theoprepia Macedonia 1 4
Timothea
Zorta Syria 4
Zoe Transjordan 6
(unnamed) Phrygia 1
(unnamed) Thasos 1 5 6
(unnamed) Iconium
west lit Abbess Respecta Marseilles 6
Radegunda Noyons 6
inscr Accepta Rukuma, Africa 6 7
Anna Rome 6
Ausonia Dalmatia 6
Theodora St Trinitas, Gaul 6
Presbyters Council of Laodicea, Canon 11 4 5
Epiphanius, Panarion 4 2 3 4
Acts of Philip 4 5
Ammion Presbyter Phyrgia 3
Artemidora Egypt 2 3
Epiktō Thera
Kalē Sicily 4 5
(unnamed) Tours, Rennes, Angiers 6
Episcopa Q Rome 5 6
Leta the Presbytera Calabria 4 5
Martia Presbyteress Poitiers 4 5
Flavia Vitalia Croatia 5
(unnamed) Salona, Dalmatia 5
Guilia Runa Hippo 5

Greek and Roman Woman Writers
Legendary
Demonassa Cyprus Lawgiver
Astyanassa Sparta Sex Writer
Iambe Thrace Poet
Phanothea Athens Poet
Phantasia Memphis Poet
Phemonoe Delphi Poet
Themistocleia Delphi Priestess Pythagorean teacher of Pythagoras
Xenocleia Delphi Priestess helper of Herakles
C7th BCE
Andromeda Lesbos Poet
Megalostrata Sparta Poet
Gorgo Lesbos Poet
Sappho Lesbos Poet
C6th BCE
Anagora Miletus Poet
Arignote Croton Samos Philosopher Pythagorean
Cleobulina Lindos Poet
Damophyla Pamphylia Poet
Eunica Salamis Poet
Gongyla Colophon Poet
Myia Croton Philosopher Pythagorean
Theano Croton Philosopher Pythagorean
C5th BCE
Abrotelia Tarentum Philosopher Pythagorean
Aristonice Athens Doctor
Aspasia Athens Miletus Poet
Charixena Athens Poet
Cleitagora Sparta Poet
Demo unknown (Greek) Poet
Diotima Mantinea Philosopher
Myia Sparta Poet
Myrtis Anthedon Poet
Perialla Delphi Priestess
Praxilla Sicyon Poet
Telesilla Argos Poet
C4th BCE
Anyte Tegea Poet
Arete Cyrene Philosopher Cyrenaic head of school
Axiothea Philius Philosopher Platonist student
Cleito unknown Poet
Diophila Alexandria Poet
Erinna Telos Poet
Eurydice Macedonia Poet
Glauce Chios Poet
Gnathaena Athens Etiquette Writer
Hedyle Attica Poet
Hipparchia Athens Philosopher Cynic
Lasthenia Mantinea Philosopher Platonist student
Learchis unknown (Greek) Poet
Leontion Athens Philosopher Epicurean student
Mnesiarchis Euboea Poet
Moero Byzantium Poet
Moschine Athens Poet
Nossis Locris Poet
Philaenis Samos Sex Writer
C3rd BCE
Aesara Lucania Philosopher Pythagorean
Agallis Corcyra Grammarian
Alcinoe Thronion Poet
Aristodama Smyrna Poet
Aristomache Erythrae Poet
Boeo Delphi Poet
Corinna Tanagra Poet
Histiaea Alexandria Grammarian
Melissa Dorian Philosopher Pythagorean
Nicarete Megara Philosopher Megaran
Perictione Ionian Philosopher Pythagorean
Phaennis Epirus Prophetess
Phintys unknown (Greek) Philosopher Pythagorean
Ptolemais Cyrene Musician
Salpe Lesbos Sex Writer
Theano Locris Poet
Themista Lampsachus Philosopher Pythagorean
C2nd BCE
Batis Lampsachus Philosopher Epicurean
Cornelia Rome Rhetorician
Melinno Locris Poet
Parthenis unknown Poet
Perictione Dorian Philosopher Pythagorean
C1st BCE
Clodia Rome Poet Dramatist
Cornificia Rome Poet
Cynthia Rome (Greek) Poet
Elephantis unknown (Greek) Sex Writer
Hortensia Rome (Latin) Rhetorician
Philinna Thessaly (Greek) Poet
Sempronia Rome (Latin) Poet
Sulpicia Rome (Latin) Poet
Syra Syria (Greek) Poet
C1st CE
Agrippina Rome Historian
Acanthis unknown (Greek) Poet
Antiochis Tlos Lycia Doctor
Claudia Trophime Ephesus Poet
Cleopatra Alexandria Doctor
Demareta unknown (Greek) Poet
Funisulana Uettula unknown (Latin) Graffito
Isis Egypt (Greek) Alchemist
Lais unknown (Greek) Doctor
Maria unknown (Greek) Philosopher mystic teacher of Democritus
Nicobule unknown (Greek) Historian
Olympias Thebes (Greek) Doctor
Pamphila Epidaurus Historian
Pantaenis Rome (Greek) Poet
Perilla Rome (Latin) Poet
Salpe unknown (Greek) Doctor
Sotira unknown (Greek) Doctor
Sulpicia Rome (Latin) Poet
Theophila unknown (Greek) Poet
Timaris unknown (Greek) Poet
Timoxena unknown (Greek) Correspondent
C2nd CE
Aspasia unknown (Greek) Doctor
Cleopatra Alexandria Alchemist
Caecilia Trebulla Rome (Greek)
Demo unknown (Greek) Poet
Dionysia unknown (Greek) Poet
Fabulla Libya (Latin) Doctor
Julia Balbilla unknown (Greek) Poet
Julia Saturnina unknown (Greek) Graffito
Maia unknown (Greek) Doctor
Metrodora unknown (Greek) Doctor
Plotina Augusta Nemausus (Greek) Correspondent Empress
Sabina Augusta Rome (Greek) Correspondent Empress
Samithra unknown (Greek) Doctor
Terentia Rome (Latin) Poet
Xanite unknown (Greek) Doctor
C3rd CE
Julia Domna Syria (Greek) Correspondent Empress
Perpetua (Latin) Autobiographer 1st Christian
Theosebeia (Greek) Poet
Theosebeia (Greek) Alchemist
Zenobia (Greek) Historian Queen of Palmyra
C4th CE
Pandrosion Alexandria Mathematician
Paula Jerusalem (Latin) Correspondent
Proba Rome (Latin) Poet
Sosipatra Alexandria Philosopher Neoplatonist head of school
C5th CE
[daughter of Olympiodorus] Alexandria Philosopher Neoplatonist
Aedesia Alexandria Philosopher Neoplatonist
Asclepigenia Athens Philosopher Neoplatonist head of school
Demo unknown (Greek) Literary Critic
Egeria Galicia (Latin) Travel Writer
Eudocia Augusta Athens Poet
Hypatia Alexandria Philosopher Neoplatonist head of school
C6th CE
Eucheria (Latin) Satirist
Theodora Alexandria Philosopher Neoplatonist student

Location
Magna Graecia 6 5
Dorian 14 11
Ionian 23 18
Rome 12 9
Egypt 11 9

Philosophy
Philosophers 25
Pythagorean 11
Neoplatonist 6
Platonist 2

Faith in atheists

When a recent British survey asked whether atheists or religious people were the more moral, most people didn’t see a difference. However, among those who did, the vote was noticeably in favour of atheists, regardless of the voter’s age band, location, political affiliation, or social class. Interestingly, more Christians (10.4%) thought that atheists were better people than thought that the religious were better people (7.5%).

 

Along similar lines, 45% of British Christians and 69.2% of British Jews felt that religion does more harm than good in society; only 32.9% of British Christians and 27.3% of British Jews held the opposite view.

 

Admittedly, these views are somewhat complicated by the fact that 40.4% of Christians and 47.5% of Jews identified themselves as “Not religious”, but, while those who identified as religious were overwhelmingly more likely to believe that religion is a social good (66.3% to 20%), the same group still ranked atheists as more moral (25.3% to 20.5%).

Religious and income inequality

A recent Pew Forum survey shows a lack of correlation between national wealth and religiosity, but a fairly-strong correlation between religiosity and income disparity.

Gender Fluidity in the Ancient World

Homosexuality in ancient Egypt

“The oldest recorded chat-up line in history is a gay chat-up line” (video)

Price, Alissa, Homosexuality in Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome

Depictions of homosexuality in ancient Egypt.

Homosexuality as a Natural Property

Αφροδιτη και Αρης ασυμφωοι […] αποτελουσι […] αδιαφορους ταις μιξεσιν αρρενικων τε και θηλυκων (“Venus and Mars at odds […] produce […] men undiscriminating about having sex with men and women”, C2nd, Vettius Valens, Anthologies 1.21 (q.v. 39P, 48K, 192P, cf. Claudius Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos 3.13)

“that place which in later Greek art and in modern times is occupied by the love of man for woman, was occupied among the earlier Greeks by the love of man for man” (EFM Benecke, Antimachus of Colophon and the Position of Women in Greek Poetry)

τελεια δ᾽ εστιν ἡ των αγαθων φιλια και κατ᾽ αρετην ὁμοιων (“The perfect relationship is of those who are good and matched in virtue” Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics 1156b, contrasted with husband-wife in 1158b)

Various “aberrant” behaviours including των αφροδισιων τοις αρρεσιν: τοις μεν γαρ φυσει τοις δ’εξ εθους συμβαινουσιν (“the having-intercouse with men: some of these by nature and others by habit happen”, Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics 1148b)

‘οσαι δε των γυναικων γυναικος τμημα εισιν, ου πανυ ‘αυται τοις ανδρασι τον νουν προσεχουσιν, αλλα μαλλον προς τας γυναικας τετραμμεναι εισι, και ‘αι ‘εταιριστριαι εκ τουτου του γενους γιγνονται. ‘οσοι δε αρρενος τμημα εισι, τα αρρενα διωκουσι (“Those women who are of the part of the woman [in the protohuman androgyne] care not greatly for men, but are turned more towards women, and the hetairistriae are of this type.  Men who are of the part of the man pursue the masculine”, C5th-4th BCE, Plato, Symposium 191e)

Homosexuality Praised – Achilles and Patroclus
φιλιαν δι᾽ ερωτα Πατροκλου και Αχιλλεως (“the friendship through passion of Patroclus and Achilles”, C4th BCE, Aeschines, Against Timarchus 1.133)

‘υπεραγασθεντες οἱ θεοι διαφεροντως αυτον ετιμησαν, ‘οτι τον εραστην ‘ουτω περι πολλου εποιειτο […] τον Αχιλλεα της Αλκηστιδος μαλλον ετιμησαν (“The gods, well pleased, honoured him [Achilles] especially, because he cared so much for his lover […] they honoured him more than Alcestis”, C5th-4th BCE, Plato, Symposium 180a, 180b)

Same-Sex Marriage
γεγάμηκα πρόπαλαι ταύτην τὴν Δημώνασσαν, καὶ ἔστιν ἐμὴ γυνή (“I have long since married this [woman] Dēmōnassa, and she is my woman” – Megillos, a trans man, in Lucian of Samosata – C2nd, Dialogues of the Courtesans 5.3)

γάμους Μεσοποταμίας ἡ Βερενίκη ποιεῖται (“Berenice [Queen of Egypt] marries Mesopotamia”, C10th, Photius, Bibliotheca 94, summarising Iamblichus, C2nd)

γυναικες ανδριζονται παρα φυσιν γαμουμεναι τε και γαμουσαι γυναικες (“woman act as men, against nature, women being given in marriage and also marrying [women]”, late C2nd, Clement of Alexandria, Paidagōgos 3.3.21.3)

“Lev 18:13, however, as a general prohibition against imitating the Egyptians and the Canaanites, provided them [the Sifra rabbis] the means to prohibit female homoeroticism in the form of woman-woman marriage.” (Brooten, Love Between Women p.65)

Default Bisexuality
μηποτ’αυτον γημαι αλλην γυναι[κα] μηδε παιδα (“may he never marry another woman or boy” C4th CE, Defixionum Tabellae Atticae, IG III.3.78)

ειτε γυνα τηνωι παρακεκλιται ειτε και ανηρ (“whether woman or man has lain beside him”, C3rd BCE, Theocritus, Idyll 2)

‘Η δ’εστιν γαρ απ’ευκτιτου
Λεσβου την μεν εμην κομην
λευκη γαρ καταμεμφεται
προς δ’αλλην τινα χασκει.
(“But she, from well-founded Lesbos, finds fault with my hair for being white, and gapes at another girl”, C5th BCE, Anacreon, fragment 358)

According to Josephus, Herod considered it unsafe to send the beautiful 16-year-old Aristobulus to Mark Antony, fearing that the Roman would take advantage of him (Jewish Antiquities 15.2.6).

Women at War
“There is also an image of Ares in the marketplace of Tegea. Carved in relief on a slab it is called Gynaecothoenas (He who entertains women). At the time of the Laconian war, when Charillus king of Lacedaemon made the first invasion, the women armed themselves and lay in ambush under the hill they call today Phylactris (Sentry Hill). When the armies met and the men on either side were performing many remarkable exploits, the women, they say, came on the scene and put the Lacedaemonians to flight. Marpessa, surnamed Choera, surpassed, they say, the other women in daring, while Charillus himself was one of the Spartan prisoners. The story goes on to say that he was set free without ransom, swore to the Tegeans that the Lacedaemonians would never again attack Tegea, and then broke his oath; that the women offered to Ares a sacrifice of victory on their own account without the men, and gave to the men no share in the meat of the victim. For this reason Ares got his surname.” – Pausanias, Description of Greece 8.48.4-5 (trans. by Jones and Omerod)

“Of all the deeds performed by women for the community none is more famous than the struggle against Cleomenes for Argos, which the women carried out at the instigation of Telesilla the poetess. She, as they say, was the daughter of a famous house but sickly in body, and so she sent to the god to ask about health; and when an oracle was given her to cultivate the Muses, she followed the god’s advice, and by devoting herself to poetry and music she was quickly relieved of her trouble, and was greatly admired by the women for her poetic art.  But when Cleomenes king of the Spartans, having slain many Argives (but not by any means seven thousand, seven hundred and seventy-seven, as some fabulous narratives have it) proceeded against the city, an impulsive daring, divinely inspired, came to the younger women to try, for their country’s sake, to hold off the enemy. Under the lead of Telesilla they took up arms,3 and, taking their stand by the battlements, manned the walls all round, so that the enemy were amazed. The result was that Cleomenes they repulsed with great loss, and the other king, Demaratus, who managed to get inside, as Socrates says, and gained possession of the Pamphyliacum, they drove out. In this way the city was saved. The women who fell in the battle they buried close by the Argive Road, and to the survivors they granted the privilege of erecting a statute of Ares as a memorial of their surpassing valour.” – Plutarch, On the Bravery of Women 4, 245c-f (trans. by Babbitt)

Note the locations: Arcadia and Argos.

Semiramis
According to Diodorus Siculus, “Ninus” of Assyria was so enamoured of Semiramis that he would do nothing without her advice, as a result of which he κατευστοχειν εν πασι (prosper[ed] in everything, Library 2.5, section 2).  Among her various virtues, she personally led the offensive which secured for Ninus the near-impregnable city of Bactra (2.6).

Diodorus also refers to Egypt’s having had 470 native male rulers, and 5 female (1.44, section 4), and says that the daughter of “Sesoо̄sis” (Ramses II) was much more intelligent than anyone else in her day (1.53, section 8), and Sophocles’ Oedipus says that men in Egypt weave indoors whilst women earn the daily bread (Oedipus at Colonus 339-341).

τῆς δὲ Καρίας ξυμπάσης σατραπεύειν ἔταξεν Ἄδαν, θυγατέρα μὲν Ἑκατόμνω […] νενομισμένον ἐν τῇ Ἀσίᾳ ἔτι ἀπὸ Σεμιράμεως καὶ γυναῖκας ἄρχειν ἀνδρῶν. (“He [Alexander] appointed Ada, daughter of Hecatomnus, to govern Caria as a whole […] as for women to rule men has been customary in Asia since Semiramis [C9th BCE]” – Arrian, Anabasis 1.23.7)

Harmony in Marriage
δει δε εν γαμωι παντως συμβιωσιν τε ειναι και κηδεμονιαν ανδρος και γυναικος περι αλληλους και ερρωμενους  και νοσουντας και εν παντι καιρωι ‘ης εφιεμενος ‘εκατερος ‘ωσπερ και παιδοποιιας εισιν επι γαμον. ‘οπον μεν ουν ή κηδεμονια ‘αυτη τελειος εστι και τελεως αυτον συνοντες αλληλοις παρεχονται ‘αμιλλωμενοι νικαν ‘ο ‘ετερος τον ‘ετερον ‘ουτος  μεν ουν ‘ο γαμος ‘ηι προσηκει εχει και αξιοζηλωτος εστι. Καλη γαρ ‘η τοιαυτη κοινωνια (“In marriage there must be above all total companionship and love for one another of husband and wife, in health and in sickness and in all time, since each desiring this as well as children they are in the marriage.  Where, therefore, the care is perfect and, they supply the sharing of it perfectly to one another,  the one striving to outdo the other, this is the marriage which is proper and worth envying, for such a union is Good.” – G Musonius Rufus, Lecture 13a)

Agricola and Domitia Decidiana “lived in perfect harmony, endeared by the tenderest affection, and each ascribing to the other the felicity which they enjoyed” – Tacitus, Agricola 6

Uettius Agorius Praetextatus to his wife Paulina, “the partnership of our heart is the origin of your propriety; it is the bond of pure love and fidelity born in heaven. To this partnership I entrusted the hidden secrets of my mind; it was a gift of the gods, who bind our marriage couch with loving and with chaste bonds.” – CIL vi.1779

ὁ δὲ φιλόκαλος καὶ γενναῖος οὐ πρὸς τὸ καλὸν οὐδὲ τὴν εὐφυΐαν ἀλλὰ μορίωνδιαφορὰς ποιεῖται τοὺς ἔρωτας […] υζυγίας ὀλίγας ἔστι παιδικῶν, μυρίας δὲ γυναικείων ἐρώτων καταριθμήσασθαι, πάσης πίστεως κοινωνίαν πιστῶς ἅμα καὶ προθύμωςσυνδιαφερούσας (Plutarch, Amatorius 21, 24)

(See also ‘Homosexuality and that word in the Bible‘ and ‘Paul versus homosexuality‘)

LGBT+ Classicists